). Other crops belonging to the same botanical order are: ginger,\u00a0cardamom,\u00a0turmeric,\u00a0galangal,\u00a0fingerroot, myoga, Bird of Paradise flower,\u00a0heliconias and prayer-plants.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nThe banana plant is a large perennial herb with leaf sheaths that form a trunk-like pseudostem. The<\/span>
\n<\/span>plant has 8-12 leaves that are up to 270 cm long, and 60 cm wide. Root development may be<\/span>
\n<\/span>extensive in loose soils, in some cases- up to 9 m laterally. Plant height, bunch size and various other<\/span>
\n<\/span>characteristics depend on the variety, see following.<\/span><\/p>\nFlower development is initiated from the underground true stem (corm) 9-12 months after<\/span>
\n<\/span>planting. The flower stalk grows through the center of the pseudostem, see figure 1. The flowers<\/span>
\n<\/span>develop in clusters ("hands"), spirally around the flower stalk axis, see figure 2. The female flowers hands grow on the basis of the flower stalk, and in most cultivars, they are followed by a few hands of neuter flowers that have aborted ovaries and stamens. These neuter flowers are followed at the terminal ends of the flower stalk, by male flowers enclosed in bracts. These male flowers have aborted ovaries and functional stamens.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nThe fruits mature in about 60-90 days after the appearance of the flower stalk. Each bunch of fruits consists of variable numbers of "hands", along a central stem. Each "hand" consists of two transverse rows of fruits ("fingers").<\/span><\/p>\nA crop cycle takes 8\u201318 months, depending on genetics, nutrition, moisture, temperature, sunlight and health of the plant. In the tropics, a crop cycle may take only 7 months, so 1.2\u20131.5 harvests per year are possible.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\nFigure 1. Structure of a mature banana plant<\/span>
\n<\/span>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Ref: <\/span>Banabiosa<\/span>.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n | Figure 2. Structure of a premature banana\u00a0 <\/span>
\n<\/span>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 <\/span>fruit bunch.<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| <\/td>\n | <\/p>\n <\/span><\/p>\n Female flowers hands<\/span><\/p>\n<\/span><\/p>\n Neuter flowers hands<\/span><\/p>\n
\n<\/span>Male flowers enclosed in bracts<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nA textual description of the phenological stages in the life cycle of a banana plant.<\/span><\/p>\n\n- Sucker: all young plant material before developing broad leaves.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Small: early stage of vegetative growth, after appearance of 10 broad leaves, at about 1\/3 of the size at flowering<\/span><\/li>\n
- Large: plants in vegetative phase about two thirds grown to flowering, after appearance of some 20 broad leaves<\/span><\/li>\n
- Shooting: first appearance of the flower<\/span><\/li>\n
- Shot: immature fruits, about six weeks old<\/span><\/li>\n
- Harvest: Reaping the bunch<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Figure 3.: a visual description of some phenological stages in the life cycle of a banana plant<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n| \u00a0 <\/span>Large<\/b><\/td>\n | Shooting<\/b>: Inflorescence emergence<\/span><\/td>\n | Shot<\/b><\/td>\n | Harvest<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n- A crop of continuously developing worldwide demand\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Banana evolved in the humid tropical regions of S.E.A (Southeast Asia), with India as one of its centers of origin. Modern edible varieties have evolved from two species, namely,\u00a0<\/span>Musa acuminata<\/span><\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Musa balbisiana<\/span><\/i>, and their natural hybrids, originally found in the rainforests of S.E.A. Its cultivation spread to Egypt and Africa during the seventh century AD. At present, bananas, along with plantains, are cultivated mainly in the regions, between 30\u00b0N and 30\u00b0S of the equator.<\/span><\/p>\nThey feature the fourth most important staple crop worldwide, and are essential to maintaining food and nutritional security, among 400 million people, who rely on them for 15\u201327% of their daily calories in their producing countries. Global banana production is growing continuously, to respond to the developing demand for this staple food. The apparent reasons for this global trend are population growth, the increased awareness to the fruit\u2019s health values, and the growth of global sector of people that are ready to pay a premium for consuming it. The banana sector is a growing USD 25 billion industry, projected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.5% between 2022 and 2027 (Mordor Intelligence, 2022).<\/span><\/p>\nBananas, along with plantains, are essential to maintaining food and nutritional security among 400 million people in producing countries.<\/span><\/p>\nIn year 2022 banana production has crossed the 135 million MT (metric ton) mark, (Figure 4), while Asia is, by far, the largest banana & plantain producer (Figure 5). The following countries are consistently the top producing ones, supplying in 2022 their domestic markets, and exporting their produce in international ones: India (30.5 million MT), China (12.0), Indonesia (7.3), Brazil (6.8), Ecuador (6.6), Philippines (6.0), Guatemala (4.3), Angola (4.0), Tanzania (3.4) and Colombia (2.9).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\nFigure 4. <\/span>Increasing global banana production<\/span>
\n<\/b>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 <\/b>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0(<\/span>million MT)<\/span>, 2000 \u2013 2024<\/b>.<\/span> Ref: FAOSTAT<\/span> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n | Figure 5. <\/span>Continents' share in global banana<\/span>
\n<\/span> \u00a0 \u00a0 <\/span>production in 2022<\/span>. <\/b>Ref: <\/span>ourworldindata.org<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n- Bananas' genetic background and its horticultural implications<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
The global banana industry comprises of about one thousand cultivars. Most commercial fresh fruit banana and plantain types are triploid (3N), which implies that their flowers are sterile, so no sexual reproduction takes place. This, coupled with the fact that their fruits are parthenocarpic indicates that real seeds cannot be produced. Therefore, banana plants can be propagated only by planting vegetative parts, like roots, or corms, or suckers taken from existing plants.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nMain types of commercially grown banana varieties were bred from the wild banana types Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Variety names are followed by appendices A (representing acuminata) and\/or B (representing balbisiana), depending on the origin of the genomes. The 'Cavendish' group type now accounts for almost half of all varieties grown worldwide, and nearly 100% of internationally traded fresh bananas. They originate from Musa acuminata, and are AAA genetically. Some typical instances are: 'Gros Michel', 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'Grand Nain' (which is a tall mutant of 'Dwarf cavendish') and 'Williams'. Meanwhile, the AAB genome group comprises many cultivars, each with its own unique characteristics.\u00a0The genetic diversity within this group is high, indicating multiple origins from different wild hybrids.<\/span><\/p>\nMost plantains (cooking bananas), however, are breedings of <\/span>Musa acuminata<\/span><\/i> and <\/span>Musa balbisiana<\/span><\/i>, and feature <\/span>AAB<\/b> or <\/span>ABB<\/b> genomes.<\/span><\/p>\nGlobal focusing on one genetic composition, and absence of sexual reproduction results in very little, to no genetic diversity at worldwide banana plantations, make them highly vulnerable to pests and diseases. (Reay, 2019). And, indeed, 'Gros Michel', the most popular banana variety until the 1950s, was devastated in Central and South America by the Fusarium wilt Tropical Race 1 (TR1), a deadly fungus found in soils. This catastrophic scenario gave way to the modern 'Cavendish' cultivars, which quickly replaced the 'Gros Michel' and is now facing similar threats from emerging pests and diseases, including Tropical Race 4 and Sigatoka fungi, which could wipe it out in the coming years. Scientists are racing to find resistant varieties to these diseases and to other challenges, such as climate change.<\/span><\/p>\nAll the above-mentioned banana varieties are grown in ~150 countries, 30\u00b0North and south of the equator. They grow in tropical climates with average temperatures of 27\u00b0C and more than 200 cm of annual precipitation.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\nFigure 6.<\/span> The fruits of some commercially important banana & plantain cultivars<\/span>\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Dwarf Cavendish<\/span> AAA<\/span><\/td>\n | Grand Naine<\/span>
\n<\/span>(tall Cavendish AAA)<\/span><\/td>\n | Red banana<\/span>
\n<\/span>AAB<\/span><\/td>\n | AAB Group<\/span><\/td>\n | Plantain<\/span>
\n<\/span>ABB<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n- Banana's optimal horticultural growing conditions\u00a0<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\n- Soil type<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
\u00a0Bananas grow well over a wide range of soils. The ideal soil should be non-compact, and well drained, yet, it should have good water retention capacity. Soil pH should range 5.5\u2013 7.5.<\/span><\/p>\n\n- Climate<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Banana plants do best at full sun exposure, and in wind-protected areas, because even moderate winds shear their leaves, thus reducing their light energy absorbance capacity. Average temperature of 27<\/span>o<\/span>C (81<\/span>o<\/span>F), and 90% relative humidity provide for optimum plant development and yields. Under such conditions the plant grows rapidly and expresses its best performance. When growing within the range of 15\u201335\u00baC, bananas can still grow, but exhibit suboptimal yield and quality. Below 15\u00baC plant growth ceases, and temperatures below 12\u00baC provoke serious chilling injury.<\/span><\/p>\nWater management\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nBanana plants have a large, constant requirement for water, due to their morphology and<\/span>
\n<\/span>tissue hydration. Heaviest yields are associated with total annual precipitation of 1,900 mm, when it is well distributed throughout the year, i.e. 160 mm\/month, and 5 mm\/day. However, it has shallow roots, which inhabit the top 30cm, and have weak penetration potential into the soil, poor ability to draw water from drying soil, and low resistance to drought. The plant displays rapid physiological response to soil water deficit. These factors determine banana plant's sensitivity to even slight variations in soil water content, and that irrigation scheduling is critical. Water is probably the most limiting a-biotic factor in banana production. The stringent water requirements of this crop can be evenly satisfied by effective rainfall and by irrigation. Irrigation is needed if rainfall is inadequate or irregular. The amount of water to apply is determined by water-holding capacity of the soil, effective rooting depth of the plant, and the depletion percentage of total available water, allowed before irrigation. While crop's evapotranspiration coefficient, determines the irrigation interval.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nThe fundamental importance of the water status of banana plants, banana production should be supported by an efficient irrigation system.\u00a0 <\/span>Drip irrigation has multiple advantages over other irrigation methods in banana cultivation<\/span><\/a> (Netafim):<\/span><\/p>\n\n- Drip irrigation has been proven to increase banana yields and improve the quality of the bananas.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Drip irrigation allows for precise water application directly to the root zone, minimizing water wastage and maximizing efficiency.\u00a0Compared to flood irrigation, drip irrigation can save more than 50% of the water.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Drip irrigation allows for efficient delivery of water and nutrients directly to the roots of the bananas, letting them grow to their full potential.\u00a0This method prevents leaching and delivers every drop of fertilizer directly to the root zone, with minimum labor involved.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Drip irrigation can be used in various terrains, including undulating, saline, waterlogged, and hilly lands.<\/span><\/li>\n
- Drip irrigation can be easily combined with remote control and automation to make your irrigation even more efficient.<\/span><\/li>\n
- By applying water directly to the root zone and not wetting the entire field, drip irrigation can help reduce the prevalence of diseases and weeds<\/span><\/a>.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
<\/b><\/p>\n\n- Central role of the mineral nutrition of banana plantations<\/b><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\u00a0<\/span>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Banana is a crop with very high nutrient demand<\/b>, which requires continuous high availability of nutrients to the plants. Bananas need to be constantly supplied with mineral nutrients, in order to maintain their vegetative and reproductive growth, as well as, to compensate for the high volume of nutrients exported from the soil, in the form of harvested fruit bunches. Naturally, soil fertility and properties strongly affect the availability of the applied nutrients to the crop.<\/span><\/p>\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Adequately applied fertilizers can markedly, positively affect the economic viability of the plantation. by:\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n- \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Increasing the total crop yield by enhancing the bunch weight.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\n- Improving the grading and external and internal qualities of the bunches, hands and fingers.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n
- Reducing the time needed for filling and maturation of the banana bunch, thus shortening the time to market of the plot, and increasing the number of growth cycles per year, hence, increasing growers' return from the plot.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Let's <\/span>have<\/span> a glance at the goal of the mineral nutrition of the banana plant, namely, bringing the required minerals to the plant organs, which need them mostly, see figure 7.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 7: Main parts of a banana plant, where mineral nutrients are found at greatest concentrations<\/span>. <\/span>
\n<\/span>Ref.: Lahav and Turner. 1989.<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 8 shows very clearly that banana is a crop with <\/span>very<\/b> high<\/b> K removal <\/b>in the produce, it is 4.9-fold higher than the N\u2019s removal rate.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 8: Macro- & meso- nutrients removal by a yield of 50 MT\/ha of 'Grand Naine' bananas.<\/span>
\n<\/span> Ref.:<\/span> Lahav & Turner, 1989.<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 9 shows the remarkable continuous uptake rate of potassium comparatively to all other nutrients.<\/span><\/p>\nFigure 9: <\/span>Nutrient uptake curves by growth stage, of banana (cv. Robusta) at 4<\/b>th<\/b> ratoon crop<\/b><\/p>\n\u00a0Ref.:<\/span> Lahav & Turner, 1989.<\/span><\/p>\n <\/p>\n Nitrogen (N)<\/b><\/p>\n Nitrogen is one of the primary nutrients taken up by banana roots. Nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids, amides, proteins, enzymes, coenzymes, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, and many more. It is equally essential for proper cell division, growth and respiration.<\/span><\/p>\n\u2663<\/span> Nitrogen is the chief promoter of growth. It induces the vegetative growth of the pseudostem and <\/span>
\n<\/span> \u00a0 \u00a0 leaves, contributing to their healthy green color. Adequate nitrogen status increases the bunch <\/span>
\n<\/span> \u00a0 \u00a0 grade, and sucker production.<\/span><\/p>\n\u2663<\/span> A healthy robust vegetative 'skeleton' is an essential pre-requisite for high yields, and nitrogen is <\/span>
\n<\/span> \u00a0 \u00a0 mainly responsible for this vegetative 'skeleton'. Lack of N produces thin, short and compressed leaf <\/span>
\n<\/span> \u00a0 \u00a0 petioles, thin and profuse roots, and lesser number of suckers. framework<\/span><\/p>\n\u2663<\/span> | | | | | | |
| |